How Do The Poets Convey Isolat... free essay sample

How Do The Poets Convey Isolation in Disabled and Refugee BluesBoth Wilfred Owens Disabled and W.H. Audens Refugee Blues address the themes of marginalization, misery and hopelessness as well as depicting the struggles and suffering that arises from these. Owens poem is inspired from his time at Craig Lockhart hospital during WW1 and his encounters with the various soldiers who were sent there while Audens work is based on the anguish faced by the German Jewish refugees who were forced to leave Germany. Disabled has a structured rhythm which reflects the soldiers strict regimented lifestyle. On the other hand, Auden incorporates the blues rhythm, which has a twelve-bar system, into his poem. The Blues genre is symbolic for the fact that it was used by slaves to talk about their problems while working. By using this genre, the poet wants the reader to understand that the refugees are talking of their problems. Owen begins by creating a melancholy picture where a soldier is depicted in a gloomy, alienated state, sitting alone in a wheelchair. Owen immediately conveys the soldiers sense of isolation by starting the poem with the third person pronoun: He which indicates that the soldier could be one of many affected by the war. The poet further reinforces the soldiers feeling of isolation and loneliness when he talks of the soldier as He sits in a ghastly suit of grey, waiting for dark. In this case, the euphemism dark could represent both nighttime and death, directing the reader to the soldiers sense of desperation and misery. The poet goes on to tell us that he wore a ghastly suit of grey exacerbating his marginalization for this could be the uniform given to the patients in the Army hospital. Additionally, this could also be seen as the soldiers wheelchair which has confined him and taken away his ability to move and his independence. Here, the use of ghastly and grey is effective as it conveys the soldiers dull and negative demeanor, portraying him as old and withered despite his young appearance. Auden meanwhile informs his audience of the plight that the German Jews face. The entire poem is narrated from their perspective. The constant repetition of the last line in each verse highlights the idea that they are disenfranchised. Right from the beginning of the poem where Auden talks about Some are living in mansions, some are living in holes, Auden makes us realize the difference between the Germans and the Jews. The constant juxtaposition in then and now is the same as Disabled. There, the soldier reflects on his life before he went to war, while here, the Jews reflect on their life before Hitler went to war. Additionally, it creates a vivid picture in the readers minds as it informs them of the quandary of the refugees and how there is no home for them. When the consul banged the table, we are aware that he had the power to deny them while they were absolutely powerless. This emphasizes societys distrust of the Jews, for even a consul, who is a figure who advises and helps is aggressively trying to reject the Jews. Owen complimentarily illustrates the soldiers experience as unjust and undeservedly harsh. The counsel tells them that if youve got no passport, youre officially dead. These words highlight the idea that he feels they are totally unimportant and they may as well be dead. However, the irony is that we are still alive, my dear, but we are still alive. Auden makes use of pathetic fallacy in the line thought I heard thunder rumbling in the sky which foreshadows the upcoming havoc the Nazi regime is preparing to wreak. To the Germans, the Jews were considered to be distinctly unimportant and they were determined to exterminate the race completely as though they were vermin. The reader is reminded that the German Jews were in a peculiar predicament, for Hitler with his Anti-semitic views was propounding his theories all across Europe saying, They must die. As Hitler was the only powerful authority at that time and ruled over Europe, the Jews were silenced, marginalized and disenfranchised in their own country.Evidently, Owen considers societys attitude towards the soldier as harsh and callous. This is clear in the three-line stanza some cheered him home†¦ inquired about his soul as the three lines could display the brevity of the acknowledgement he r eceived or the fact that the soldiers life has literally been shortened. By using a three-line stanza, which contrasts to the rest of the poem, the poet isolates the stanza and compares it to the soldier, who has also been marginalized in comparison to everyone else. Owen ends the poem by repeating the clause Why dont they come? which is a euphemism for death, informing the reader of the soldiers pain, despair and alienation. The unanswered question evokes sympathy and pity from the reader, for it could allude to the soldier waiting for the nurses to put him to bed, showing the reader the extent of damage caused and how it restricts him. Owen further emphasises peoples distaste for the soldier in the simile all of them touch him like some queer disease. Queer has harsh connotations and links to the soldiers entrapment and separation from society as it is defined as peculiar and inconvenience; this implies that the soldier is an inconvenience to society. By referring to him as a disease, Owen dehumanizes the soldier and highlights societys disregard for h im as they feel the soldier is going to infect them. This simile shows the girls inability to connect with the now damaged soldier, who is longing to feel again how slim girls waists are. Auden on the other hand, dehumanizes the Jews by comparing them to animals. He refers to them as symbols to show their presence in society. The anthropomorphic statements Saw a poodle in a jacket and saw a door opened and a cat let in accentuate their neglect as society would much rather pamper animals and deem them human than consider helping a marginalized race. It also creates a hierarchical disproportion as people consider animals to be worthier than Jews. The poet creates an image of freedom and carelessness in the line fish swimming as if they were free: Only ten feet away which juxtaposes the position of the fish with the Jews, who are unable to live as if they are free and displays the couples sense of frustration as they can see what they cannot have. Throughout the poem, Owen breaks the tense atmosphere by switching between the ethereal light blue trees of his youth to the present, where the soldier is powerless. An example of this is when the fruitful language of girls gl anced lovelier and glow lamps budded is cut short by the caesura in the short, blunt line before he threw away his knees. Owen explores the soldiers life as being inescapable and incessant torment through the personification of mothering sleep, which suggests that the soldier draws comfort from escaping his tortuous present. The theme of unending entrapment is further explored in Refugee Blues through the dreams of the refugee, where he sees a building with a thousand floors, A thousand windows and a thousand doors, representing the extent of isolation and exile the German-Jews face, for even in their dreams, they cannot have anything. The repetition of the words a thousand emphasizes the refugees feeling of disenfranchisement and neglect. Audens use of dreams differs to Owens nostalgic dream-like memories in that Owen presents the dreams as an escape to a better time where the soldier felt happier, while, Auden portrays dreams as a place where the Jews have nothing. In each stanza, the last line contains the words my dear followed by an ominous statement such as Yet theres no place for us now which r eveals the effect of the exile on the couple, where each stanza ends with a cry for help. Owen, instead, chooses to refrain from communicating with the reader to stress the soldiers inability to make contact with society. Auden makes a comparison between the past and present in the line We once had a country and thought it fair to express the couples feeling of exclusion. Owen also makes a comparison between the soldiers pre-war and post war experiences. By using In conclusion, Both poems Disabled addresses these through the use of sudden comparisons between two points in the soldiers life while Refugee Blues uses emotive and vivid language to suggest that the couples future is

Deviance Essays (386 words) - Criminology, Social Constructionism

Deviance Deviance Not everyone behaves in the way society expects or approves. Since children they start to change the values of their own parents. As adults, they may choose entirely different ways of life. In all societies, there are people who dream of being what they aren't. Sometimes they decide to challenge the system, to push out beyond the limits established by law or tradition. Political radicals, school dropouts, women who refuse the role of homemaker or mother. They are willing be labeled troublemakers or simply, deviants because they believe that society's norms should change. Professional thieves, and bank robbers also violate norms, but their deviance is not usually based on a belief that society should change. More commonly on thieves, is that they always want a bigger reward for what they do for a living. Sociologists define deviance as behavior that violates an essential social norm. Deviants are people who go beyond the limits of socially acceptable behavior. Although the definition of deviance is simple, deviant acts in real life are hard to turn down. No single act, not even taking another person's life is forbidden at all times in any human society. Deviance is relative. What is deviant behavior in one place may be acceptable in another place. For an act to be deviant, it must be considered so by law or rules. A behavior may be seen as normal, even desirable, by some people and as deviant by others. For example, a student who spends a lot of time doing library research may win a teacher's respect and appreciation but be considered as a nerd by other students. What is normal or desirable to the teacher can be deviant to other students. Some of these students, those who refuse to study are deviant by the norms of the teacher and of most of society. In our society is easy to find varieties between acceptable and unacceptable behavior and the punishment for violation of the norm. Such variations are more characteristic of large, advanced societies like ours than of small societies bound by a set of strong, shared traditions. In the topic of Crime, discusses lawbreaking, an obvious form of deviance, and the methods used by society in attempting to control it. They are three important theories of deviance: anomie, deviant subcultures, and labeling. Sociology Essays

Free Essays on Voodoo

First and foremost Voodoo is a religion. It is the dominant religion of Haiti. Voodoo is a religion that originated in Africa and was brought to Haiti by slaves, where it is still widely practiced by most inhabitants. Many of the practices and descriptions of Voodoo belief may sound to us like superstition, but then, imagine the beliefs of Christianity to people who know nothing about it. Most aspects of this religion are positive and it affects all aspects of the people's lives, such as morality, economics, safety, relationships and health. In Voodoo there is one God, Bondye. The three important categories of other spiritual beings are: Loa, The twins, and The dead. Loa are the various spirits of family members. The spirits of the major forces of the universe are: good, evil, reproduction, health, and all aspects of daily life. Loa interacts with the people of the earth. They mount people now and again during religious ceremonies and they give messages, and even cause various good and bad things to happen to people. The twins are a curious and rather mysterious set of forces of contradictions, good and evil. If honored now and again in religious services they will tend to help you have the better side of life. The dead is mainly the souls of one's own family members who have died but have not yet been reclaimed by the family. Ignored family dead are dangerous. Honored and cared for family dead are helpful. The central and key aspect of Voodoo is healing people from illness. Such healing activities prob ably constitute sixty percent of all Voodoo activity. Healers heal with herbs, faith healing with the help of Loa and other spirits and, today, even with western medicine. The priesthood of Voodoo contains both men (houngan) and women (mambo). Their functions are: healing, performing religious ceremonies to call or pacify the spirits, holding initiations for new priests (tesses) (kanzo service and taking th... Free Essays on Voodoo Free Essays on Voodoo First and foremost Voodoo is a religion. It is the dominant religion of Haiti. Voodoo is a religion that originated in Africa and was brought to Haiti by slaves, where it is still widely practiced by most inhabitants. Many of the practices and descriptions of Voodoo belief may sound to us like superstition, but then, imagine the beliefs of Christianity to people who know nothing about it. Most aspects of this religion are positive and it affects all aspects of the people's lives, such as morality, economics, safety, relationships and health. In Voodoo there is one God, Bondye. The three important categories of other spiritual beings are: Loa, The twins, and The dead. Loa are the various spirits of family members. The spirits of the major forces of the universe are: good, evil, reproduction, health, and all aspects of daily life. Loa interacts with the people of the earth. They mount people now and again during religious ceremonies and they give messages, and even cause various good and bad things to happen to people. The twins are a curious and rather mysterious set of forces of contradictions, good and evil. If honored now and again in religious services they will tend to help you have the better side of life. The dead is mainly the souls of one's own family members who have died but have not yet been reclaimed by the family. Ignored family dead are dangerous. Honored and cared for family dead are helpful. The central and key aspect of Voodoo is healing people from illness. Such healing activities prob ably constitute sixty percent of all Voodoo activity. Healers heal with herbs, faith healing with the help of Loa and other spirits and, today, even with western medicine. The priesthood of Voodoo contains both men (houngan) and women (mambo). Their functions are: healing, performing religious ceremonies to call or pacify the spirits, holding initiations for new priests (tesses) (kanzo service and taking th...

Contemporary issues in managing human resources Essay - 1

Contemporary issues in managing human resources - Essay Example As averred by Ferris, et al. (1999), â€Å"driven by a number of significant internal and external environmental forces, HRM has progressed from a largely maintenance function, with little if any bottom line impact, to what many scholars and practitioners today regard as the source of sustained competitive advantage for organizations operating in a global economy† (p. 385). Further, contemporary HRM issues include the more qualified term using strategic HRM as establishing the link towards monitoring the quality of employee performance. Another pervading concern of global organizations is the option for downsizing, specifically when external environmental pressures and competitive factors impinge on the decision-making process, to ensure survival and continued production and operation. In this regard, the current research aims to proffer issues in contemporary HRM, particularly focusing on downsizing. The objective is planned to be attained by initially defining relevant terms , such as HRM, strategic HRM, and downsizing. A concluding portion would highlight the significant issues discussed as supported by various authoritative sources from academic journals on the subject of HRM. Definition of Terms An examination of various definitions of HRM by authors, academicians, and management practitioners, shows more common elements than disparate concepts. After synthesizing these elements, the following definition is arrived at: HRM is the art and science of acquiring, motivating, maintaining, and developing people in their jobs in light of their personal, professional and technical knowledge, skills, potentials, needs and values and in synchronization with the achievement of individual, organization and society’s goals. HRM deals only with people so that they can manage the other resources within their domain of responsibilities more effectively. On the other hand, strategic human resources management (SHRM) is defined by Boxall and Purcell (2003) as à ¢â‚¬Å"concerned with explaining how HRM influences organisational performance. They also point out that strategy is not the same as strategic plans. Strategic planning is the formal process that takes place, usually in larger organisations, defining how things will be done. However strategy exists in all organisations even though it may not be written down and articulated. It defines the organisation’s behaviour and how it tries to cope with its environment.† Authors Boxall and Purcell examined the interrelationships and extent by which organizational goals are achieved and influenced by HRM. They differentiated HRM from SHRM by indicating that â€Å"HRM was defined as including â€Å"anything and everything associated with management of employment relations in the firm† (Boxall & Purcell, 2000, p. 184). The theoretical basis for the inclusion of the word strategic to HRM was detailed using a review of various literatures from scholars on the subject. Boxall and Purcell finally averred at this definition of SHRM as â€Å"concerned with the strategic choices associated with the use of labour in firms and with explaining why some firms manage them more effectively than others† (2000, p. 185). According to Miller (2001), â€Å"HRM could not be conceptualized as a stand-alone corporate issue† (p. 348). The inclusion of strategy was regarded as a necessary addition to incorporate marketing efforts to gain competitive advantage with effective use of the

Cluster Competencies and their Behavior Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Cluster Competencies and their Behavior - Essay Example This, as the name suggests, is used to prioritize the work which was decided should be included in the above strategic orientation. This helps in further organizing the whole situation and focuses the attention of different subjects on the relevant topics so they can be compiled effectively and efficiently. This narrows down the task at hand even more. It basically looks at the results that wish to be achieved and then makes sure that the priorities have been set properly. This helps in maintaining a positive relationship with the task being designed and the overall result being achieved. This is the crux of cluster competency. It basically involves organization and maintaining a constant and positive flow of information in the form of updates on the project being performed with all the members involved in the job. This helps individuals adapt more easily to the situation and helps streamline all tasks so that more can be accomplished in less time. The work of a member acting as a leader is crucial. He is responsible for providing his team with direction and guidance so that they are not led astray and keep on track so that no energy is wasted in irrelevant work. This is vital to working as a group. ... Development Developing Self This competency in a person makes sure that he takes responsibility of himself and makes sure that he is responsible for his own self improvement. Developing Others This is vital to working as a group. Improving oneself while improving the performance of others while giving constructive criticism is going to help the group perform better and consequently improve performance. Developing Networks In the age of globalization, one task cannot be complete with just a normal group. This is why seeking and identifying any outside the group members within the organization will help in the fast processing of information like computer experts. Reasoning and management Critical Thinking This looks at the situation from a broader perspective to make sure that things are going according to plan. Problem solving A vital part in competencies is to manually identify by making a conscious effort and then find effective solutions for it. Decision making Once a problem has been identified, a decision should be made to effectively and efficiently solve it. This is vital to the whole situation otherwise there was no need for the other preceding parts. Communication Verbal Being clear in your conversations and eliminating any communication gaps is helpful before getting down to work. Written The need to make everything clear to others is vital because it doesn't matter how innovative someone is, if he cannot present his information in a proper and organized way in a report, he is useless for the team. Numerical Statistics need to be interpreted to make sure that the plan formed by the team is going to succeed or not. This can only be done by projecting numbers and interpreting information

Rational Choice Theory

Rational Choice Theory Critically explore the proposition that individuals freely and rationally choose to commit crime. This essay will critically discuss the proposition that individuals freely and rationally choose to commit crime. Alternative criminological theories such as the Positivist tradition and more recent sociological perspectives of crime will be examined. This paper will conclude the proposition of the rational criminal is one of many constructions used within criminology to understand criminal behavior. The idea that individuals freely and rationally choose to commit crime stems from the Classical School. Eighteenth century philosophers such as Jermemy Bentham, and Cesare Beccaria are associated with the classical tradition. During the Enlightenment varied theories such as the social contract and utilitarianism provided the initial context for the theorization of criminal activity in society. It is argued (Garland 2001 p.11) the classical school characterizes the offender as a rational free-willed actor who engages in crime in a calculated, utilitarian way and is therefore responsive to deterrent.’ Classical philosophers were engaged by the criminal justice system and punishment in order to investigate wider socio-economic aspects of the Enlightenment era. It must be suggested that criminal actions by the individual was not the main agenda of Classical theorists. But the school did provide a platform to enable discussion as to what motivates an offender to commit crime. To understand the reasons why the individual was seen in a rational calculating manner it is important to discuss the ideas of the social contract and utilitarianism. The classic tradition is founded upon social contract theories by Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau. John Locke wrote about the unwritten social contract between state institutions (such as the monarchy) and its citizens. Locke placed an emphasis on all individuals being equal, while those in sovereign power define a clear systematic framework for protecting citizen’s fundamental rights. The belief in human free will and self interest according to Locke and Rousseau, meant the existence of society would be untenable if all individuals were motivated by selfish interests governing the way they lived. It is assumed that all humans are rational, capable of self interest and are liable to commit crimes as an expression of their free will. Thomas Hobbes in Leviathan suggested the ‘right of all sovereigns is derived fr om the consent of every one of those who are to be governed.’ (Wikipedia 2006) Thus individuals are viewed rationally as citizens who have sacrificed part their freedom in making the social contract with the state. This sacrifice allows them to ‘live in a peaceful society’ and not in an anarchic state of nature without laws and rules to govern conduct. Those who break their contract by not abiding specific community rules, cause harm which must be punished accordingly in proportion to their criminal conduct. Violating the social contract leads to sanctions, in order to carry out state punishment on those individuals who have chosen to commit a crime. Beccaria was one of the most prominent social writers advocating a classical approach to crime in society. The text Dei Delitti e Delle Pene (Crimes and Punishments 1764) discussed the idea of a justice system able to determine the appropriate levels of punishment for violations. Beccaria is influential as he supported the reform of the criminal justice system and viewed crime in terms of the harm made to society rather than to the individual victim of a crime. Beccaria applied the social contract model to crime and criminal justice. Thus Beccaria believed all humans were rational beings. Consenting to the social contract meant giving up a partial amount of individual liberty to the sovereign power. In turn this agreement allowed authorities to impose proportionate punishment to those breaking the established rules of the state. For example the social contract idea was applied to legal regulation of crime and those who commit it; that laws are the ‘conditions under which indepe ndent and isolated men united to form society and tangible motives had to be introduced to prevent the despotic spirit.’ These take the form of punishments established against those who break the law. (Jones 2001, Chap 5) It follows that such violators of the law are therefore engaged in an irrational act. Crime is viewed as an irrational act as the deviant activity is perceived to be against the best interests of the public. Beccaria also followed a rationalized proportionate view of how the state should respond to such criminal individuals. For example he argued the true measure of the seriousness of a crime is the harm to society and not the intention of the offender. Thus the punishment given by the state must be determined in public to ensure deterring others contemplating such acts. Beccaria argued for deterrence measures to prohibit future criminal intentions and activity. Such reasoning held that the threat and certainty of detection is an effective form of deterrent. Once detected the punishment of the crime should be swift to ensure maximum impact and effect. Beccaria’s system relies on its clarity and simplicity. It is a proportional system in which punishment and sentencing aims to prevent re-offending and control crime. Secondly such a system and laws represent the ‘moral consensus of society’ acknowledging the seriousness of the crime. (Hamlin 2006) Jeremy Bentham was a key figure of classical theory and was influenced by Beccaria’s work. Bentham approached the proposition that individuals choose to freely commit crime within a utilitarian framework. This was applied to the penal system and crime. Bentham created the ‘felicitation principle’, that whatever activity is committed should endeavor to give the maximum happiness to the largest number of people in society. Bentham formulated the moral calculus also known as the pleasure-pain principle. For example Bentham supposed that man is a rational calculating animal, who can judge probable gains against the pain likely to be imposed. Thus ‘if the pain outweighs the gains he will be deterred and this produces maximum social utility.’(Wikipedia 2006) Bentham used the utilitarian idea to advocate the need for a rational justice system which was ‘graduated’, based on the principle of proportionality to ensure fairness. Bentham’s ph ilosophical ideas laid the foundation for new forms of penal systems, such as incarceration as a sanction, to fit the type of crime committed. (Garland 2002 pp.20) Thus classical theory argued that deterrence could be maximized through the proportional criminal justice system. Such an approach called for the reform of excessive state punishment which was humane in penal sanctions. Through examining the impact of an individual’s capacity to freely commit crime, the classical writers helped to lay the initial foundations of how criminal behavior could be studied and theorized in later modern criminology. The classical theories which believe in the rational sentience of human beings have been heavily criticized for being too simplistic, and assumptive. For example Gilbert Geis (1955) suggested Bentham’s classical theory was a ‘total failure to consider criminals as human beings as live complicated variegated personalities.’ The critics of the classical school further point out the crucial weakness in Bentham’s utilitarian pleasure – pain principle. The moral calculus of cost benefit analysis is flawed in two ways. First it relies of the hypothesis that for deterrence to be successful the offender will act rationally. Successive criminological schools such as the positivists have challenged this rational assumption of humans. Classical theories can be criticized on the basis of failing to take into account individual circumstances and the unsophisticated manner it perceives human beings to act. Crime can often be a ‘spontaneous reaction to a situ ation’ (Wikipedia 2006) which can be unplanned and without rational intention to commit it. Secondly the principle uses this same line of assumption in deciding a graduated scale of punishment according to the seriousness of the offence. In relying on a just desserts model of punishment it assumes ‘the more serious the harm likely to be caused the more the criminal has to gain.’ (Wikipedia 2006) Therefore Bentham has been criticized for painting man as an unrealistic calculating individual. It suggests that subsequent criminal activity can only be the result of free choice by those who choose to commit the crime. It does not take into account the varied differences within the human condition or wider sociological factors which attribute other alternative factors for the causes of crime. Criticism of the classical school highlights the lack of scientific evidence to back the moral, economic and social assumptions within the theories of Beccaria and Bentham. For example Garland (2002 pp.20) discusses the methodological criticisms of the classicist school for its ‘unscientific reliance upon speculative reasoning rather than observed facts.’ The rejection of speculative thinking of the human condition challenged the basic proposition that individuals freely and rationally choose to commit crime in society. It is argued by Garland while such criticisms emphasize the lack of scientific knowledge; both Beccaria and Bentham were not criminologists but philosophers writing in the eighteenth century. Criminology as a distinct form of study can trace its roots back to certain ideas published by prominent social contract writers. Primarily Bentham and others where not occupied in scientific debate but philosophical social and economic study. Social contract writers emphasized ‘the importance of reason and experience, denigrating theological forms of reasoning.’ (Garland 2002 pp.20) It is in this sense unfair to criticize Enlightenment writers’ contention of the rational free will from a criminological standpoint. Such classical theories were not created specifically to consider the study of crime on its own. But they attempt to engage in a modern dialogue objectively dealing with current social issues of the era avoiding, ‘irrational superstitious beliefs and prejudices’ in discussions. This can be seen in Beccaria’s work which was not criminological but an extensive body of ‘work related to the political economy’. Garland (2001 pp. 20) argues that despite the classicists’ lack of a scientific methodology, their interests helped to develop ways of investigating how and why crime is caused in society. For example Garland argues that topics such as ‘psychology of offending, natur e of criminal motivation, and state control to regulate individual conduct’ are central issues explored by classical writers to examine the notion of rational free will in a wider academic context. They were in Garland’s view ‘attempting to understand the roots of human conduct rather than develop a particular knowledge of offenders and offending.’ (Garland 2002 pp. 23) In response to the classical traditions’ scientific weakness, the ‘Neo-Classical’ school of thought emerged maintaining the belief that humans were rational beings with individual free will and the capacity for responsibility. Such individuals can be controlled by the fear of punishment. The Neo –Classical perspectives looked to external explanatory factors in examining crime. For example it located the concept of the individual’s free will and choice to commit crime within a broader landscape of the influence of social environmental factors. Such outside f actors could be used to asses the seriousness of the crime and the corresponding punishment to be given by the state. The proposition that crime is committed by free will and rational choice was attacked by the positivist school. Positivists looked to overcome the lack of sophistication of classical theory by using a ‘scientific’ style to examine aspects of the criminal and criminality. The main text which aimed to uncover the ‘science of the criminal’ (Garland 2002 pp.23) was by Cesare Lombroso LÚomo Delinquente in 1876. Lombroso is widely seen as the father of modern criminology, concentrating on the subject of crime by offenders. Lombroso believed in the primacy of scientific empirical study to answer why people commit crimes. This school of thought contested the classical proposition that crime was a product of free will and rational though processes of humans. Concepts of biological determinism suggested there were external forces outside the control of the individual in determining the capacity for criminal behavior. For example studies by Lombroso, Ferri and Garof alo investigated the concept of the ‘born criminal’ from distinctive physical traits and examining social factors influencing the causes behind crime. The work of Lombroso was influenced by the cultural impact of Darwin’s Theory of Evolution and the existing anthropological studies which initially were used to help understand human motivations behind crime. Garland (2002 pp.24) suggests that positivists clearly rejected the classicists idea of rational free will due the belief in ‘the conception of the criminal as a naturally occurring entity, a fact of nature rather than social or legal product.’ Such an approach led to the natural scientific study of the criminal type, to ‘trace its characteristics, its stigmata, its abnormalities and eventually identify the causes which make one person a criminal and another individual a normal citizen.’ The focus on the existence of criminal types which are predetermined rather than chosen by the free will of individuals, suggested the positivist school also refuted the classical view on criminal justice and punishment. The positivists’ emphasized the need for treatment instead of penal measures as a mechanism for crime control by the state. The rejection of the free will of rational actors is important as positivist theory aims to distinguish between those who commit crime from those who do not. The notion of free will is in this sense attacked as a ‘metaphysical abstraction’ (Garland 2002 pp.24) while the deterrence theory was deemed a failure in sentencing practice. Within this background a second strand of positivist study developed known as the Governmental Project. It involved a series of government sponsored empirical enquiries. Such studies sought to chart crime patterns and monitor police and prison practice in eighteenth century Britain. Such studies le d to classical views to fall from favor. For example proportional sentencing in response to differing levels of harm was seen as a ‘failure to differentiate between different types of offender.’ Thus the positivist approach it can be suggested was a flexible rehabilitative approach to preventing and treating criminality, as criminals themselves are not responsible for actions as they are already pre determined. The importance of positivist views was to establish the connection between scientific methods analyzing all aspects of criminality, with the individual and the wider social context. From this premise a wide and far reaching academic discipline of criminology has become established within the last century examining issues such as why crime is committed by offenders. While many of the findings of the Lambroso project have since been discredited its impact and ideas on rehabilitative treatment as a form of social control on crime have had an important effect on policy formers working within the criminal justice system. Modern positivist criminologists still share the view that human behavior is not just a by product of choices, but is determined by biological, psychological or social forces. It can be suggested that this belief has helped to widen the discourse on ways of explaining why individuals commit crime under the influence of ‘deterministic’ factors. The proposition that crime is committed by individual rational beings has also been challenged by the rise of the wide-ranging category of sociological criminological theories. For example according to Rock (2002 pp.51) sociological approaches explaining crime is vastly different to the classicist and positivist approach to understanding why crime is committed by the individual. Instead of focusing on the individual as the basis for empirical study, sociological theories draws from an array of potential causal factors. Thus the sociological method will aim to study the significance of social institutions, group behavior and interaction between communities and the individual. Sociological methods include Durkheimian and Mertonian anomie theories, the Chicago School, and Labeling theory, all which cast unique social factors locating the individual in a group setting as to understand criminal behavior. Rock (2002 pp.51) argues this approach highlights the fact ‘crime is centrally bound up with the states attempts to impose it’s will through law; the meaning of those attempts to the law-breaker, law-enforcer and victim.’ This only serves to demonstrate a diverse approach to examining crime from all aspects of those involved in the criminal justice system. Early classicist thought viewed in light of sociological theories shows there are many theoretical starting points to discuss the fundamental question whether the individual freely chooses to commit crime as a rational being. Other disciplines such as criminal psychology, has aided the study of crime through medical analysis. For example Hollin (2002 p.145) states that the distinctive branch of criminological psychology is ‘concerned with the use of psychology to help explain criminal behavior.’ It is focused ‘on the individual’ as to what motivates criminal activity within the individual and society at large. Criminological psychology explores the proposition of the individual committing crime. For example behavioral theory stresses the importance of the in individual comprehending the consequences of the act for the individual concerned.’(Hollin 2002 p.151) This serves to show how other modern theories look at the role of the individual and responsibility in relation to criminal activity within society. In conclusion this paper would argue the proposition that individuals freely and rationally choose to commit crime is a valid contribution to the discussion concerning criminal behavior. The classical tradition raised important philosophical, social and moral issues related to crime and its impact within society. But the assumption in rational belief is too simplistic to explain the differences in individual criminal actions. It does not account for those who are not capable of making rational decisions such as the mentally impaired or acts which irrationally occur unexpectedly. For this reason this essay would argue that this proposition is only one of many theoretical ways to understand why crime is committed by individuals in society. Bibliography Coleman C and Norris C, (2000), Introducing Criminology, Cullompton: Willan Publishing Garland D, (2002), Of Crimes and Criminals: The Development of Criminology in Britain, In Maguire M, Morgan R, Reiner R, (eds) (2002) The Oxford Handbook of Criminology, (pp. 7- 44) 3rd Edition , Oxford: Oxford University Press Geiss G, (1955) Pioneers In Criminology-Bentham 46 J Crim L, Criminology and Police Sci 159 Hamlin J, (2006) http://www.d.umn.edu/~jhamlin1/classical.html Hollin C R, (2002), Criminological Psychology, In Maguire M, Morgan R, Reiner R, (eds) (2002) The Oxford Handbook of Criminology, (pp.144-168) 3rd Edition , Oxford: Oxford University Press Jones S, (2001) Criminology, 2nd ed, Butterworths Maguire M, Morgan R, Reiner R, (eds) (2002) The Oxford Handbook of Criminology, 3rd Edition , Oxford: Oxford University Press Muncie J, Mclaughlin J (2001) The Problem of Crime, 2nd edition, Open University Sage Publishing Rock P, (2002), Sociological Theories of Crime, In Maguire M, Morgan R, Reiner R, (eds) (2002) The Oxford Handbook of Criminology, (pp.51-75) 3rd Edition , Oxford: Oxford University Press Vold G Bernard T, (2005) Theoretical Criminology, 5th edition, New York: Oxford University Press Walklate S, (2001), Gender Crime and Justice, Cullompton: Willan Press Wikipedia, (2006), Classical School, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/classical_school

Interlocking Spurs

An Interlocking Spur Is a physical feature which consists of: a valley In the form of t he letter V, a river bank (the part of a river where the land begins and where the land slowly g higher and higher until reaching water level), a source (the first place in a river where water begins to flow), a channel(the outline of a shallow narrow body of water) and spurs. 3. The formation of an Interlocking Spur takes a very long time due to the many stage It must undergo to finally become an Interlocking Spur.It begins as flowing water which grad ally begins to erode the ground as it moves. At the same time rain causes the sides of the valley to begin eroding in a downwards fashion. In an attempt to find a path consisting of more resistant rocks. It begins to form small hills on the sides of the valley. As the sides of t he valley continue to erode, earth and rocks fall into the stream. They then become deep sited outside of the bends.This vertical erosion causes the formation of the narrow spurs, because the water is moving faster causing the interlocking spurs to be formed. Over time the spurs become more and more refined, so much so that it almost looks like a long zipper. 5. Examples of Interlocking Spurs: Interlocking spurs at Ashes Hollow, tributary to the River Severe Interlocking spurs looking up Kendall Beck, tributary to the River Breathy in Lake Did strict, Cambric,